Women are a minority in prison. Currently 6.8% of the world prison population is female, but this number is rapidly growing. Due to the relatively low number of female inmates, prison policies have traditionally developed in response to the behavior of men. However, women in prison have different needs. For example, needs related to: pregnancy, breastfeeding, raising children, hygiene, health and prison security. In order to respond to these specific needs, the UN General Assembly adopted the Bangkok Rules (2010). The Bangkok Rules have three focal points. Apart from responding to the specific needs of women in prison, the rules also focus on the protection of children and the prevention of (sexual) abuse. In addition, the Bangkok Rules promote non-custodial sentences for convicted females.
In 2014, the IPPF (International Penal and Penitentiary Foundation) initiated a global research project on women in prison. Seven authorities in the field of women in prison were asked to write an article on the topic. Furthermore, representatives from 23 countries were asked to fill out a questionnaire on women in prison. Questionnaires were sent to the following countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, England and Wales, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey and the United States of America. The responding states were asked to report on the situation in their country considering the following topics: (a) the international legal framework applicable to women in prison, (b) statistics relevant to women in prison (c) criminological factors relevant to women in prison and (d) the actual conditions of women in prison. As to the latter, the responding states were asked to describe whether these conditions are in accordance with the Bangkok Rules. Both the seven thematic articles and the 23 national reports were published in Van Kempen P.H.P.H.M.C. & Krabbe, M.J.M. (eds.), Women in prison: the Bangkok Rules and beyond, Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2017. The introductory chapter to this book presents an overview of the topic of women in prison, referring to the seven thematic articles, the 23 national reports and to supplementary studies on women in prison. The chapter is available for free, right here.
A brief overview of this chapter – focusing on the questionnaire topics and the research results pertaining to Europe – is presented below.
Different categories of international rules are applicable to women in prison: general human rights treaties (such as the European Convention on Human Rights), specific human rights treaties (on torture, war, children, women and work) and international instruments relevant to prisoners (Mandela Rules, European Prison Rules, Bangkok Rules). Most of the respondent states have ratified and/or implemented this international framework. However, not all of these rules are applied in practice, as a fair number of responding states indicates.
There are about 700.000 women in prison worldwide. Approximately 98,906 of these women can be found in European prisons. In Europe, 4.9% of the prison population is female. This is a lower number than the 6.8% worldwide average. The highest female prison population rates (per 100,000 of the national population) can be found in the Americans, the lowest in Africa. Middle levels apply to Europe, Asia and Oceania. Within Europe, the lowest female prison population rates can be found in Ireland, France and Italy. The number – and this is a shocking number – of women in prison worldwide has increased with 50% since 2000. This rise cannot be explained in terms of growth of national population levels. The European rise of women in prison is not as dramatic as the worldwide average. In Europe, the number of women in prison only grew 4.4% since 2000.
As to the causes of criminal behavior of women, various studies demonstrate that women’s pathways to prison can be identified by several shared features, such as: a history of child abuse, sexual abuse, domestic violence, poverty, low level of education, minimum employment histories compared to male prisoners, mothering and responsibilities for others, mental health problems and addiction. Most crimes that women are convicted for, also in Europe, are economic in nature. The highest rates result from drugs-related crimes, but theft and embezzlement also have a high occurrence. In general – but there are several exceptions in Europe – women are less likely to be convicted to a prison sentence than men, and if they are convicted sentences are short.
Several areas in the field of women in prison were so frequently mentioned by the reporting states that they probably require urgent attention from governments. These areas are: health care, children in prison, searches and prison design. Moreover, governments should make an effort to bring down the number of women in prison. Female imprisonment has a high cost, and its effects are often negative. Several suggestions are provided to reduce the number of women in prison.
References relevant to the numbers and facts mentioned in the above summary can be found in:
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetur adipiscing elit semper dalar elementum tempus hac tellus libero accumsan.
David Jackson and Jed Stone focus on the use of AI in probation and advocate for investigations to understand the opportunity, address issues and innovate for the good of all.
In March 2024, we paid attention to the study of Steve Pitts and Leo Tigges about Building Probation Capacity . The executive summary of their publication is now available in French and German, including the infographic on capacity building in both languages. Later this year, translations in Italian and Spanish will also be released!
Is the day of a probation officer in Germany similar to the one of someone working in Romania? In the series ‘A day in the life of a probation officer’, we publish articles written by probation officers from different countries in Europe to see if their days look a like or are very different from each other.
‘Providing Mental Health Support to Probation – A European Perspective’ by Charlie Brooker is now available. This book offers an evidence-based exploration of mental health in probation, drawing on research across 27 European countries to provide valuable insights on support mechanisms for individuals on probation.
The publication of EuroVista journals stopped in 2016. On this page you can find the online journals volume 1.1 – 4.2. If you would like to have your research published on the CEP website, please send an email to communication@cep-probation.org.
EuroVista was published up to three times a year by CEP, the Confederation of European Probation. The journal is dedicated to linking research with policy and practice in probation and community justice throughout Europe. EuroVista seeks to share experience of good practice and responses to challenges that may have relevance to many countries across the continent.
EuroVista aims to publish articles that are relevant and accessible to practitioners, managers and policy makers in a wide range of criminal and community justice agencies, especially probation. It is also read by students, researchers, scholars of criminal justice and others who are interested in the subject matter. Whole issues or individual contributions can be downloaded without charge.
Journal on monitoring technology and its use in enhancing public safety. More information on the website of the Civic Research Institute.
Most of the Ukrainian victims of war who take refuge in EU countries are women and children. And these children go to school in their host community, with it becoming one of the first points of contact between the local population and the refugees.
The book ‘The Girl Who Kept Her Eyes Open’ aims to raise awareness among children (7-10 years old) and adults (parents and teachers) of the problems suffered by people fleeing war and their rights.
Through the story of a Ukrainian refugee child meeting a particularly observant little girl in her new school, it shows the importance of paying attention to others in order to recognize the victims of crime – in this case, the victims of war-related crimes – and offer them support.
The Irish Probation Journal aims to provide a forum for sharing theory and practice, increasing co-operation and learning and developing debate about work with offenders. The journal is supported by the Probation Board for Northern Ireland (PBNI) and the Irish Probation Service.
JUSTICE TRENDS is a premium printed and online magazine that features exclusive content such as interviews with Ministers of Justice, Directors General of prison and probation administrations, as well as articles on pressing current criminal justice topics globally.
“I, who had it figured out!” is a memoir by Patrick O’Dea, a social worker who has worked in the Probation Service for twenty years, followed by 17 years in the Social Work School of Trinity College Dublin. Now, he works part-time at University College Dublin. The book reflects on O’Dea’s 40-year journey in social work, including his time as a teacher at Trinity College, Dublin. It explores his experiences in 1970s Ireland, his commitment to the ideals of social work, and the impact of his profession on real lives. The memoir has received endorsements for its wisdom and insight from notable figures in the field of social work.
